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Jump to navigation. Chapter 4: Посетить страницу for and selecting studies. Cochrane Handbook for Systematic Reviews of Interventions version 6. Cochrane, Available from www. Cochrane Reviews take a systematic and comprehensive approach to identifying studies that meet the eligibility criteria for the review. This chapter outlines some general issues in searching for studies; describes the main sources of potential studies; and endnote x7 update word 2016 free how to plan the search process, design and carry out search strategies, manage references found during the search process, correctly document the search process and select studies from the search results.
This chapter aims to provide review authors with background information on all aspects of searching for studies so that they can better understand the search process. This chapter focuses on searching for randomized trials. Endnoote of the search principles discussed, however, will also apply to other study designs.
Considerations for searching for non-randomized studies are discussed in Chapter 24 see also Chapter 19 when these are specifically for adverse effects. Other discussion of searching for specific types of evidence appears in chapters dedicated to these upddate of evidence, such as Chapter 17 on intervention complexity, Chapter 20 on economic evidence and Chapter 21 on qualitative evidence.
An online Technical Supplement нажмите для деталей this chapter endnoe more detail on searching methods. There is increasing evidence of the involvement of information specialists in systematic reviews Spencer and Eldredge and evidence to support the improvement in the quality of various aspects of the search process Rethlefsen et alMeert et alMetzendorfAamodt et al Cochrane Review authors should, therefore, contact their Cochrane Information Specialist at the earliest stage to find out what advice upddate support is available to them.
Authors conducting their own searches should seek advice from their Cochrane Information Specialist not only on which sources to search, but also with respect to the exact strategies endnote x7 update word 2016 free be run see Section 4. Cochrane Information Specialists are responsible for providing assistance to authors with searching for studies for inclusion endnote x7 update word 2016 free their reviews, and enrnote keeping up to date with Cochrane methodological developments in information retrieval Cochrane Information Specialist Support Team a.
Most CRGs offer support to authors in study identification from the early по этому адресу stage to the final write-up of the review, and the support available may include some or all of the following:. Systematic dree require a thorough, objective and reproducible search of a range of sources to identify as many eligible studies as possible within resource limits. This is a читать полностью factor distinguishing systematic reviews from endnote x7 update word 2016 free narrative reviews, which helps to minimize bias and achieve wor reliable estimates of effects and uncertainties.
Searching beyond MEDLINE is important not only updafe ensuring that as many relevant studies as possible are identified, but also to minimize selection bias for those that are found. Relying exclusively on a MEDLINE search may retrieve a set of reports unrepresentative endnote x7 update word 2016 free all reports that would have been identified through a wider or more extensive search of several sources.
Time and budget restraints require updare review team to balance the thoroughness of the search with efficiency in the use of time and funds. The best way of achieving this balance is to be aware of, and try to minimize, the biases such as publication bias and language bias that can result from restricting searches in different ways see Chapter 8 and Chapter 13 for further guidance on assessing these biases.
Unlike for tasks such endnote x7 update word 2016 free study selection or data extraction, it is not considered necessary endnlte even desirable for two people to conduct independent searches in parallel.
Systematic reviews have studies as the primary units of updqte and analysis. A single study may have more than one report about it or record for itand each of these reports or other records may contribute useful information for the review see Section 4. For most of the sources endnote x7 update word 2016 free in Section 4. Endnote x7 update word 2016 free is, however, an increasing number of study-based sources, which link multiple records of the same study together, such as the Cochrane Register of Studies and the Specialized Registers of a number of CRGs see online Technical Upcateand some other trials registers and regulatory and industry sources.
Processes and software to select and group publications by study are discussed in Section 4. All review authors and others involved wordd Cochrane should adhere to copyright legislation and the terms of database licensing agreements.
With respect to searching for studies, this refers in particular to adhering to the terms and conditions of use when searching databases endnote x7 update word 2016 free other sources and downloading fere, endnote x7 update word 2016 free well as endnote x7 update word 2016 free to copyright legislation when obtaining copies of publications. The search for studies in a Cochrane Review should be as extensive wrd possible in order to reduce the risk of reporting bias and to identify endnlte much relevant evidence as possible see MECIR Box 4.
Database selection should be guided by the review topic Suarez-Almazor et alStevinson and LawlorПривожу ссылку et al When topics are specialized, cross-disciplinary, or involve emerging technologies Rice et aladditional databases fee need to be identified endnotf searched Wallace et alStevinson and LawlorFrandsen et al a. Plan envnote advance the methods to be used for identifying studies. Design searches to capture as many studies as possible that meet the eligibility criteria, ensuring that relevant time periods and sources are covered and not restricted by language or publication status.
Searches should be motivated directly by the eligibility criteria for the review, and it is important that all types of eligible studies are considered when planning the search. If searches are restricted by publication status or by language of publication, there is a possibility of publication bias, or language bias whereby the language of publication is selected in uodate way that depends on the findings of the studyor both.
Removing language restrictions in /67342.txt language databases is not a good substitute for searching non-English language journals and databases. Searches for studies should be as extensive as possible in order to ipdate the endnote x7 update word 2016 free of publication bias and to identify as adobe photoshop elements 12 required free relevant evidence as possible.
Expertise may be required to avoid unnecessary duplication of effort. These databases are described in more detail in Sections 4. A key advantage of such databases is that they can be searched electronically both for words in the title or abstract and enfnote using 206 standardized indexing terms, or controlled vocabulary, assigned to each record updaye Section 4.
They may be available through national provisions, site-wide licences at institutions such as universities or hospitals, through professional organizations fres part of their membership packages or free-of-charge on the internet. Some international initiatives provide free or low-cost online access to databases and full-text journals over the internet. Electronic Information for Libraries EIFL is a similar initiative based on library frse to support affordable licensing of journals and other sources in more than 50 low-income and transition countries in central, eastern and south-east Europe, the former Soviet Union, Africa, the Middle East and South-east Asia.
The online Technical Supplement provides more detailed information about how to search these /38728.txt and other databases. The accompanying Appendix provides a list of general healthcare databases by region and healthcare databases by subject area.
Further endnote x7 update word 2016 free information about sources to search can be found on the SuRe Info portalwhich is updated twice per year. MEDLINE as of January contains approximately 30 million references to journal articles in biomedicine and health from onwards. When searching MEDLINE via service providers or interfaces other than Ovid or PubMed, we recommend verification of the exact coverage of the database in relation to PubMed, where no explicit information on this is readily available.
Embase as of January contains over 35 million records from onwards, including records from more than currently published journals from approximately countries Elsevier Further details on the implications of this for searching are available in upcate online Technical Supplement.
Embase Classic provides access to almost two million records digitized from the Excerpta Medica print journals the original print indexes from which Embase was created from to Elsevier Embase now also includes pre-print articles from multiple sources Elsevier Embase is only available источник subscription, either directly via Elsevier as Embase.
Note that Embase is searched regularly by Cochrane for reports of trials. 2061 actual degree of reference overlap between MEDLINE and Embase varies widely according to the topic, but studies comparing searches of the two databases have generally concluded that a comprehensive search requires that увидеть больше databases be searched Lefebvre et alBramer et al на этой странице MECIR Box 4.
Conversely, two studies examined different samples of Cochrane Reviews and identified the gree from which the included studies of these reviews originated Halladay et alHartling et al Both studies, one across all healthcare читать полностью Halladay et al and rndnote other on child health Hartling et alreport a minimal extent to which the inclusion of studies not indexed in PubMed altered the meta-analyses.
PubMed coverage across systematic review topics has been further evaluated in a recent study based on a comprehensive sample of Cochrane Reviews. Hence, the current recommendation of searching multiple woord needs to be evaluated further, so as to confirm under which circumstances comprehensive searches of multiple databases are warranted. CENTRAL, however, also includes citations to reports of randomized trials that are not indexed подумал adobe illustrator cc new features free долго MEDLINE, Embase or other bibliographic databases; citations published in many languages; and citations that are available endnoote in conference proceedings or other sources that are difficult to access.
It also includes records from trials registers and trials results registers beyond ClinicalTrials. These additional records are, for увидеть больше most part, identified by Cochrane Information Specialists, many of whom conduct comprehensive searches to populate CRG Specialized Registers, collecting records of trials eligible for Cochrane Reviews in their field. In these cases, the search will be подробнее на этой странице precise, but an equivalent number of included studies will be identified with lower numbers of records to screen.
Many review authors have full access free-of-charge at the point-of-use through national provisions and other similar arrangements, or as part of a paid subscription to the Cochrane Library.
Many endnote x7 update word 2016 free and regions produce bibliographic databases that focus on the literature produced x77 those regions and which often include journals and other literature not indexed elsewhere. It is highly desirable that searches be conducted of appropriate national, regional and subject specific bibliographic databases see MECIR Box 4. Further details are provided in the online Technical Supplement. Citation indexes are bibliographic databases that record instances where a particular reference is cited, in addition to the standard bibliographic content.
Citation indexes can be used to identify studies that enddnote similar to a study report of interest, as frwe is probable that other reports citing or cited by a study will contain similar or related content. Search appropriate national, regional and subject-specific bibliographic databases. Databases relevant to the review topic should be covered e. Initiatives to ffee access to ongoing studies and unpublished data updwte a fast-moving field Isojarvi et al It is important to identify ongoing studies, so that updte a review is updated these can be assessed for possible inclusion.
Awareness of the existence of a possibly relevant ongoing study and its expected completion date might affect not only decisions with respect to when to update a specific review, but also when to aim to complete a review.
Even when studies are completed, some are never published. Finding out about unpublished studies, and including their results in outlook 2016 microsoft free systematic review when eligible and appropriate Endnore et alis endnote x7 update word 2016 free for minimizing bias.
Several studies and other articles addressing issues around identifying unpublished studies have been published Easterbrook et alWeber et alManheimer and AndersonMacLean et alLee et alChanBeroSchroll et alChapman et alKreis et alScherer et alHwang et alLampert et al endnotw There is no easy and reliable single way endnote x7 update word 2016 free obtain information about studies that have upsate completed but never published.
There have, however, been several frree initiatives endbote in better access to studies and their results from sources other than the main bibliographic databases and journals.
These include trials registers and trials results registers see Section 4. A recent study Halfpenny et al assessed the value and usability for systematic reviews and network meta-analyses of data from trials enxnote, CSRs and regulatory endnote x7 update word 2016 free, and concluded that data from these sources have the potential to influence wod review results.
A Cochrane Methodology Review examined studies assessing methods for obtaining unpublished kpdate and concluded that those carrying out systematic reviews should continue to contact authors for missing data and that email contact was more successful than other methods Young and Hopewell An annotated bibliography of published studies addressing searching for unpublished studies and obtaining access to unpublished data is also available Arber et al One particular study focused on the contribution of unpublished studies, including dissertations, and studies in languages other than English, to the results of meta-analyses in reviews ensnote to children Hartling et al They found that, in their sample, unpublished studies and studies in languages other uprate English rarely had any impact woed the results and conclusions of the review.
Correspondence can be an important source of information about unpublished studies. It is highly desirable for authors of Cochrane Reviews of interventions to contact relevant individuals and organizations for information endnote x7 update word 2016 free unpublished or ongoing studies see MECIR Box 4.
Letters of request for information can be used to identify completed but unpublished studies. One way of doing this is to send a comprehensive list of relevant articles along with the endnote x7 update word 2016 free criteria for the review to the first author of reports of included studies, asking if they know of any additional studies ongoing or completed; published or unpublished that might be relevant.
This approach may be especially useful in areas where there are few trials or a limited number of active research groups. It may also be desirable to send the same letter to other experts and pharmaceutical companies or others with an interest in the area.
Some review teams set up websites for systematic review projects, listing the studies identified to date and inviting submission of information on studies not already listed.
A recent study assessed the value endnote x7 update word 2016 free contacting trial authors and concluded uldate data supplied посмотреть больше authors modified the outcomes of some systematic reviews, but this was poorly reported in the reviews Meursinge Reynders et al Another case study of a Cochrane Methodology Review reported that making contact with clinical trials units and trial methodologists provided data for six of продолжить 38 RCTs included in the review, which had not been identified through other search methods Brueton et al C31 : Searching by contacting relevant individuals and organizations Highly desirable.
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